Trauma can result from a difficult event or situation that tests a person’s ability to cope, often with negative impacts to a person’s mental well-being. Individual responses to trauma vary among children and adults. Without empathetic and responsive caregivers to support them, children can become overwhelmed as they cope with experiences they do not understand and that threaten their physical and emotional safety and well-being (De Bellis & Zisk 2014). As the landmark Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) study reported, trauma during childhood is associated with a wide range of negative health outcomes in adulthood (Felitti et al. 1998). Not surprisingly, trauma can also affect a child’s ongoing ability to function in school and at home, as we see with Andrew (Children’s Bureau et al. 2015).

While recognizing the potential negative effects of trauma, research also highlights the power of trauma-informed early care and education to support children and families toward more positive outcomes. In fact, children’s development across domains, including cognitive, social, and emotional areas, is influenced by interactions with their caregivers and within the caregiving environment (Center on the Developing Child 2007). From infancy, young children with responsive caregivers (familial and non-familial) are likely to thrive, whereas young children who experience emotionally unavailable or unpredictable environments are more likely to experience negative impacts within their cognitive, social, language, and emotional development, as observed in the behaviors they display and the ways they interact with the world.

Early childhood educators are likely to encounter young children who have experienced a traumatic event or trauma on an ongoing basis (US Department of Health and Human Services 2019). Children under the age of 6 are the most vulnerable for trauma at the hands of their caregivers (Stahmer et al. 2005; US Department of Health and Human Services 2019). These children are educated and cared for within early learning programs, school environments, and in homes where educators and other caregivers may have ongoing questions about and struggles with children’s behaviors as a result of the trauma the children have experienced. This article uses a strengths-based trauma lens to outline practical and research-supported suggestions to promote positive social and emotional development and to encourage a child’s sense of competency.

ARC: Attachment, Regulation, and Competency

The Attachment, Regulation, and Competency, or ARC, (Blaustein & Kinniburgh 2019) framework is a flexible intervention created for children and adolescents who have experienced trauma. Research findings indicate that children who completed ARC therapeutic treatment had decreased instances of challenging behavior (Arvidson et al. 2011). In our own work using the ARC model, we found that children who have experienced trauma are experiencing an increase in their protective factors, particularly initiative and self-control, as a result of the program. Most behavioral concerns decrease, although attention problems and aggression remain of concern over time.

While the ARC model was developed for clinical and therapeutic settings, the strategies used in this model can be incorporated in any setting that practices trauma-informed care, particularly with training and consultation support. In fact, evidence has shown that using ARC in early childhood classrooms significantly increased teacher emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support, as measured on the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), while control classrooms experienced an overall decrease in these areas over a school year (Rishel et al. 2019; Tabone et al. 2020). Positive changes have also been found over a two-year time period, along with significant reductions in internalizing and externalizing behaviors of children, 74 percent of whom had experienced at least one traumatic event and 45 percent experiencing three or more traumatic events (Holmes et al. 2015). Thus, ARC can support a variety of early childhood classroom environments and interactions.

ARC in the Classroom

Our setting is a crisis/respite child care center housed within a non-profit family support center. Families are scheduled for two hours of free child care once a week, typically for a six-month period, so that parents can engage in self-care, attend on-site therapy and education, and also address issues related to employment, housing, and legal needs. Services are also available for parents in need of care during an unexpected crisis. This could occur when a caregiver unexpectedly falls through or a parent feels overwhelming stress and needs immediate relief from caregiving. We also function as a temporary shelter for children who have been removed from their homes by law enforcement or child protective services. The center schedule operates similarly to other early childhood settings, with a focus on both small and large group interactions, and art and sensory, music, and large and fine motor activities. As with many early care settings, there is particular attention paid to supporting children’s developing social and emotional skills.

Many of the children in our program have experienced or witnessed trauma and, like Andrew, often in multiple ways. Our staff members receive in-depth training about how to apply the Attachment, Regulation, and Competence (ARC) framework in lesson plans and teacher-child interactions in the therapeutic child care center.

The ARC framework has three main areas of intervention: attachment, regulation, and competency. These concepts are appropriate for all centers caring for young children, as they focus on building necessary skills for child success, including supporting children’s positive relationships, self-regulation skills, and feelings of competence. We will discuss specific strategies that early childhood educators can implement in their own settings.

Attachment

Attachment is the first domain of the ARC framework. Children need secure attachments and connections. For example, our work with Andrew and his mom included establishing rhythms and routines so Andrew felt more safety and predictability in his environment. Knowing what to expect helped him to feel more in control of his environment, an important component of treatment for children who have experienced trauma (van der Kolk 2017). Indeed, routines and rituals are important for all children and in all early childhood environments (Gillespie & Petersen 2012), not just for children who have experienced trauma. Predictable routines help children feel safe and give them a sense of mastery over their environment.

Our predictable routines include the teachers and children collaboratively creating a visual schedule for the day by voting on activities from a short list of options. The visual schedule is an important reference point for teachers to identify what has happened and prepare children for what will happen next. This creates a sense of predictability within the class, even though the specific activities vary. In any early learning environment, when the activities (large group, play/center time, snack time, naptime, reading, gross motor activities, etc.) occur in a consistent order within the day, this predictability supports children’s competence and sense of security (Gillespie & Petersen 2012). Being able to rely on these types of routines empowers children to anticipate what will come next, creating a sense of safety, trust, and attachment.

In addition to providing predictable routines and rituals, the adult’s affect regulation (how they manage their own emotions in response to children’s words, feelings, and actions) is also important for responding effectively to all children. The more regulated early childhood educators, parents, or other caregivers are, the more likely that they can effectively engage with and respond to the range of children’s emotions and behaviors. This is true for all children, but especially important for children who have experienced trauma.

An early childhood educator’s ability to model, support, and coach effective regulation provides a foundation for children’s self-regulation. If a teacher consistently expresses calm emotions when a child is upset, the child will be better able to calm down. For example, when Andrew became upset in the classroom environment, Candice calmly told him she was there to support him and breathed deeply with him to help calm him down. Over time, he, in turn, used this skill with other children when they became upset.

Understanding the impact of trauma on children helps caregivers recognize a behavior as distress rather than misbehavior. For example, Candice and Andrew’s other teachers understand that shame can be a core emotion for children impacted by trauma and that feelings of shame can lead to unwanted behaviors. They worked to attune to and recognize Andrew’s strengths rather than focus on his misbehavior. This, along with teacher consistency and predictability through routines and rhythms, laid the groundwork to support Andrew’s secure attachments.

Regulation

Regulation is the second domain of the ARC framework. Children who experience trauma often have difficulty regulating their emotions (Hébert, Langevin, & Oussaïd 2018) and physiological state (Kinniburgh 2019) in different settings. For example, our work with Andrew focused on supporting his understanding of his emotions and his learning of appropriate ways to express and deal with his emotions. Candice and other teachers began by helping Andrew learn to identify his feelings, to understand his experience with those feelings, and to read others’ emotional cues. Andrew was able to learn new ways to safely express his emotions and to adjust his emotional states to a comfortable level.

These strategies can support all children’s developing awareness, acceptance, and responsibility for their emotions and resulting actions, regardless of whether trauma has occurred. When children have parents and primary caregivers who support and guide their emerging emotion-regulation competence, they are more likely to successfully navigate difficult situations (Cole et al. 2008). Teachers in a variety of early childhood environments can use these strategies with children on a daily basis to help them develop self-regulation skills.

One strategy for building self-regulation is an energy check-in and check-out. We practice this strategy as part of our daily classroom ritual. For example, Andrew, like most children his age, did not often stop and think about how his body was feeling. During the energy check-ins, Andrew seemed to enjoy learning ways to help modulate his body when he was feeling uncomfortable. Tuning into his body helped Andrew slow down, focus, and notice how his body felt. These are self-regulation and executive function skills that benefit all children, not just those who have experienced trauma.

The next step, after helping children pay attention to their energy, is to begin to understand and express what they are feeling. In the case of Andrew, Candice helped him by offering words when he could not name his emotions. Teachers observed Andrew’s behaviors and his facial or body cues for clues about how he might be feeling. Next, they described and validated his feelings. They also coached him in trying alternative behaviors that might be more effective in meeting his needs. For example, when a peer took Andrew’s toy car, Andrew knocked him down to take the car back. With practice, Andrew began using words to describe his feelings and tell other children what he wanted to happen. As early childhood educators modeled these strategies with Andrew to understand his feelings, Andrew also began to use the same strategies with his peers. Again, these strategies benefit all children, not only those who have experienced trauma, and these strategies can help an educator support children even when they are not aware of trauma in a child’s life.

How Safe Spaces Play a Key Role in Regulation

Another strategy for fostering regulation is to provide a safe, calming space where a child and an early childhood educator can take a break. In our program, we offer a “comfort corner,” an area of the classroom where children go when they are feeling uncomfortable with their energy level. The physical space is a small alcove in the main section of the classroom that provides the child, and an adult, some space away from other children for a moment. This comfortable space is equipped with pillows, blankets, and chairs, as well as a choice of modulation activities such as playdough, fidget spinners, timers, kaleidoscopes, and books. We follow six important guidelines in the “comfort corner.”

1. Only one child should be in the “comfort corner” at a time.
2. Children must be with an adult.
3. Be safe and follow directions.
4. Complete an emotional check-in and check-out, sometimes using emoji pictures to label feelings.
5. Items in the “comfort corner” must stay in the “comfort corner.”
6. Clean up before leaving.

The educator’s role is an essential part of the “comfort corner” strategy. During a visit to this corner, the adult helps the child become more aware of their feelings. They might ask questions about how an activity makes the child feel (e.g., more calm, more excited). Providing a “comfort corner” and facilitating a child’s visit to this safe space is a strategy that could be helpful in a variety of early learning environments to help children feel safe, supported, and able to manage strong emotions. Rather than a “time out,” this is a “time in” to focus on supporting a child’s self-regulation. The educator’s positive presence and support are essential when children are struggling to develop these important skills.

For example, sometimes Andrew would initiate a visit to the “comfort corner”; at other times, Candice would notice his high level of energy and suggest a visit. This happened often when Andrew first began attending our program and he was frequently acting in a way that could cause harm to himself, others, or the environment. Within weeks, however, these incidents decreased as Andrew began asking for time in the “comfort corner” to modulate his emotions before becoming overwhelmed.

Andrew’s caregivers noticed a dramatic improvement in Andrew’s self-awareness and ability to regulate his emotions. His teachers observed that the “comfort corner” strategy also supported Andrew’s relationship with his mother, as Andrew created a “comfort corner” at home with his mom. One evening when he was upset, Andrew asked his mom to join him in his “comfort corner” so she could support him in controlling his emotions. She was impressed by how well he explained how he was feeling and why he needed to take a break. She expressed to the staff how much she appreciated that they were helping him learn to understand and manage his emotions. In fact, one evening when Andrew noticed his mom was having a difficult time regulating her emotions, he suggested that she go into the “comfort corner.”

Competency

Competency is the third domain in the ARC framework. As described earlier, an overall goal of the ARC framework is to build on children’s social, cognitive, and emotional strengths as we help them continue to develop their competencies. For example, as we assessed Andrew’s strengths, it was apparent that he was a natural leader and connected easily with other children. When he was interested in an activity, he was able to focus for some time and plan ways to extend activities. These executive functioning skills (focusing, planning) are important to highlight and nurture when children have experienced trauma, as these skills can often be compromised as part of the negative impacts of trauma. Our staff built on Andrew’s competencies by inviting him to lead activities in which he was particularly interested. It was easy to observe how much he enjoyed the acknowledgment of his leadership skills. That is not surprising, because when teachers capitalize on children’s strengths to further their development, they also support children’s developing sense of competence.

The ARC Framework with Families

In addition to the skills implemented within the center, teachers can also offer families information about how to apply the ARC framework at home. Flyers and handouts about the ARC framework can be posted on parent boards or sent home in family newsletters. These resources can include tips for helping adults regulate their own emotions as well as how to help their children. In our program, we also offer education courses on-site. Activities include building “travel-sized” modulation kits using items such as thinking putty, bubbles, stress balls, fidget toys, and positive affirmation cards.

Our experience with Andrew and his family helps illustrate the benefits of the ARC framework and strategies. Andrew was able to practice regulating his behavior in the classroom. His mom used the time while Andrew was in care to engage in her own self-care so she could be ready to implement some of the strategies she had learned from the ARC framework. After some time, she said to Candice: “There have been times where I felt like giving up. Then, . . . there you are, with the other support staff, smiling and reminding me that I can do this.” While supportive partnerships between families and staff are especially critical when children have experienced trauma, all children benefit from positive and responsive relationships.

Early childhood educators are likely to encounter young children who have experienced trauma at a certain point in their early lives, and some do on a regular basis. The interventions based on the ARC framework promote the development of all young children using strengths-based strategies that support children’s attachment relationships, their self-regulation skills, and their sense of competency.

Lessons Learned

As a program, our staff has gained a number of insights about children through our implementation of the ARC framework in our center. Some of the lessons we learned include the fact that safe spaces and attuned caregivers open the door to healing for children who have experienced trauma. We learned that children coregulate with the adults who care for them, and our ability to be consistent and calm in our interactions supports children’s regulation. Children will discuss their emotions as a result of caregivers opening the door to methods of communication about emotions. We were pleasantly surprised by the fact that young children are adept at the cognitive process of identifying their and other children’s energy and emotions.

Children’s competence is supported by intentional caregiver action and focus on strengths. From this experience, we also learned that teaming with parents supports developing parental competencies as well as child development.

It is important to build a trauma-informed culture that includes trauma-sensitive supervision and teaming practices to support educators with stress reactions and implementation challenges. It is also important to look at the function of a program’s daily rhythms and routines as this relates to supporting regulation of the group as a whole as well as regulation for each individual child.

References

Arvidson, J., K. Kinniburgh, K. Howard, J. Spinazzola, H. Strothers, M. Evans, B. Andres, C. Cohen, & M. Blaustein. 2011.  “Treatment of Complex Trauma in Young Children: Developmental and Cultural Considerations in Applications of the ARC Intervention Model.” Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma 4: 34–51.

Blaustein, M.E., & K.M. Kinniburgh. 2019. Treating Traumatic Stress in Children and Adolescents: How to Foster Resilience through Attachment, Self-Regulation, and Competency. New York: The Guilford Press.

Center on the Developing Child. 2007. “The Science of Early Childhood Development” InBrief. https://developingchild.harvard.edu/

Children’s Bureau/Administration on Children, Youth and Families/Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children/US Department of Health & Human Services. 2015. “Understanding the Effects of Maltreatment on Brain Development” Issue Brief, April 2015. https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/brain_development.pdf

Cole, P., T. Dennis, K.E. Smith-Simon, & L.H. Cohen. 2009. “Preschoolers' Emotion Regulation Strategy Understanding: Relations with Emotion Socialization and Child Self‐Regulation.” Social Development 18 (2): 324–352.

De Bellis, M., & A. Zisk. 2014. “The Biological Effects of Childhood Trauma.” Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics 23 (2): 185–222. 

Felitti, V., R. Anda, D. Nordenberg, D. Williamson, A. Spitz, V. Edwards, M. Koss, & J. Marks. 1998. “Relationship of Childhood Abuse and Household Dysfunction to Many of the Leading Causes of Death in Adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 14 (4): 245–258. 

Gillespie, L., & S. Petersen. 2012. “Rituals and Routines: Supporting Infants and Toddlers and Their Families.” Young Children 67 (4): 76–77.

Hébert, M., R. Langevin, & E. Oussaïd. 2018. “Cumulative Childhood Trauma, Emotion Regulation, Dissociation, and Behavior Problems in School-Aged Sexual Abuse Victims.” Journal of Affective Disorders 225: 306–312. 

Holmes, C., M. Levy, A. Smith, S. Pinne, & P. Neese. 2015. “A Model for Creating a Supportive Trauma-Informed Culture for Children in Preschool Settings.” Journal of Child and Family Studies 24 (6): 1650–1659.

Rishel, C. W., J. K. Tabone, H. P. Hartnett, & K. F. Szafran. 2019. “Trauma-Informed Elementary Schools: Evaluation of School-Based Early Intervention for Young Children.” Children & Schools 41 (4): 239–248.

Tabone, J. K., C.W. Rishel, H.P. Hartnett, & K. F. Szafran. 2020. “Examining the Effectiveness of Early Intervention to Create Trauma-Informed School Environments.” Children and Youth Services Review 113: 104998.

Stahmer, A.C., L.K. Leslie, M. Hurlburt, R.P. Barth, M.B. Webb, J. Landsverk, & J. Zhang. 2005. “Developmental and Behavioral Needs and Service Use for Young Children in Child Welfare.” Pediatrics 116 (4): 891–900. 

US Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau. 2019. “Child Maltreatment 2017.” https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/report/child-maltreatment-2017.

van der Kolk, B.A. 2017. “Developmental Trauma Disorder: Toward a Rational Diagnosis for Children with Complex Trauma Histories.” Psychiatric Annals 35 (5): 401–408.

Photographs: © Getty Images

Copyright © 2021 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. See Permissions and Reprints online at NAEYC.org/resources/permissions.